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Excursions in Historical Theology
Who is Man? What happens in the next life?
4. Who is Man? (Westminster Confession, Chapters Four (paragraph two), Six, Eleven)
4.1 Man in God’s Image
The Confession affirms the special place of man in God’s created order. “After God made all other creatures, He created man male and female, with reasonable and immortal souls, endued with knowledge, righteousness, and true holiness, after His own image, having the law written in their hearts and power to fulfill it; and yet under a possibility of transgressing, being left to the liberty of their own will, which was subject to change”(IV, 2).
Scripture teaches the unique role of mankind in the creation and his special relation to God (Gen. 1:26-30, Gen. 2:7). It is said only of man that 1) he was made in the image and likeness of God, 2) he was given the dominion over the creation (implying a stewardship and interdependence), and 3) was fashioned by God, unlike the other creatures. God took special care with mankind to establish his role in the creation and due to his unique faculties established special responsibilities of obedience.
Of what does the image of God in man consist? Theologians have put forward various ideas over the centuries. Some have said the high faculties of reason, will or speech; others the fact that man is a tri-partite being, body, soul and spirit; others that man has a unique ability to commune with God, to share in the Holy Spirit; still others that man alone reflects God’s character in his dominion (naming and ruling over the animals and other creation), or that he alone was called to obedience of a God-given command. There is truth in these various proposals. I think the conscience is a seat of the image of God in man (Rom. 2:14-15). Man alone is self-aware, may have regrets and is bound by a moral duty which he usually or often does not fulfil. It is clear from scripture that man is a primary focus of God’s thoughts (Prov. 8: 22-31, Ps. 82:6).
Man’s separateness, uniqueness, and superiority to the rest of the creation is agreed on in historical theology. This puts the animistic concept that all creation equally contains the spirit of God in a sub-biblical, sub-Christian category. Likewise, the New Age belief that we have a divine spark within, that simply needs to be identified or cultivated is a heretical belief. The doctrine of God and Creation tells us that God is always superior to and separate from his creation . Some Christians, particularly in the faith camp of recent years, have failed to distinguish between Creator and creature. They have taught, not simply that we are in Christ, but that we are Christ. Any doctrine which blurs the distinction between God and man, Creator and creature is either sub-Christian or heretical.
4.2 The Fall and Its Consequences for Mankind (Original Sin)
Chapter VI of the Confession clearly addresses the Fall, sin and its consequences. While man was originally righteous, he lost that status as a result of disobedience against the command of God. The Fall has a permanent effect on the human race and the Creation. The man’s relationship to God, male-female relationships, and mankind’s relationship to the created order become subject to sin and distortion as a consequence of the Fall. (Gen 3: 8-24; Rom. 8:18-25).
Several terms are used to describe the result of the Fall. One is accursed (Heb. ‘arar) which means “to bind (with a spell), hem in with obstacles, render powerless to resist” (TWOT, vol. 1, p. 75). It seems to indicate the inability to fulfill one’s purpose or destiny, or to render powerless to act. This seems the opposite of blessing which released the men and woman into fruitfulness and dominion, a fufillment of their purpose, and a manifestaiton of their highest calling. Thus to be accursed it to be prevented from fulfilling one’s created purpose. The purpose of the original creation is bound or hemmed in by the Fall and its consequences.
Another word used in the Gen. 3 account is ‘atsav, “in painful toil you shall eat of it (the fruit of the ground). Again this word carries the idea of “thwarted.’ So that no matter how hard he worked the man would have a sense that the earth was thwarted from it original goodness.
A third word used in Romans 8:20 is futility (Gr. mataiotes). The creation has been subject to futility – but in the hope of redemption.
So we see that man created in God’s image and the creation he was to steward is subject to futility, an inability to fulfill its original goodness. He, and it, are in need of redemption. This leads us to several doctrines, Original Sin, Redemption of the Created Order, and Glorification (in Eastern Orthodoxy theosis or deification).
4.5 Sin Defined
Scripturally and according to systematic theologians (See Williams), sin is pervasive, inherited, and individual. The Confession recognizes the results of the Fall on humanity and the fact of Original Sin. “They being the root of all mankind, the guilt of this sin was imputed, and the same death in sin, and corrupted nature, conveyed to all their posterity descending from them by ordinary generation” (VI, 3). Romans 5:12-19 most clearly states the concept of original sin, but Rom. 3: 9-18 states its result, what we might call total depravity as cited in VI,4 of the Confession: “From this original corruption, whereby we are utterly indisposed, disabled, and made opposite to all good, and wholly inclined to all evil, do proceed all actual transgressions.”
The Confession also acknowledges the presence of natural corruption in the Christian throughout the earthly life as stated in VI, 5, “This corruption of nature, during this life, doth remain in those that are regenerated; and although it be , through Christ, pardoned, and mortified; yet both itself, and all the motions thereof, are truly and properly sin.” This view comes into some conflict with the doctrine of entire sanctification in later Wesleyan Methodism (18th century). This is the belief that believers, through an experience of the Holy Spirit, can be completely free from all known sin in their life.
One of the strongest statements of the doctrine of original sin is found in Ephesians 2:1-4. There mankind is shown as dead in transgression (actual sinful actions) and sin, bound by unhealthy, unholy desires, by nature children of wrath, and under the influence the spirit of this age (the devil) who is at work in the children of disobedience. So sin penetrates to our nature, our actions, our state of being, our thoughts, the spiritual influences that motivate us
Two biblical words, transgression and iniquity, address this question as well. A transgression refers to “crossing a boundary,” i.e. a sinful act. Iniquity means “twistedness” and refers to an imperfection or mis-shapeness of nature. We fail to be what we are originally created to be – a perfect reflection of the image and likeness of God.
4.6 Free-Will and the Pelagian Controversy
All of this discussion leads eventually to the doctrine of redemption. But first, a controversy of historical import -- the Pelagian Controversy. Aren’t we free to obey God or not? Don’t we have free will to obey his commands if we choose to? Isn’t it blasphemy to say that God commands us to be or behave a certain way, if we are unable to fulfill that command? If you think so, then you are a Pelagian.
The classic (and deficient) understanding of free-will says the will in man is the seat of the image of God, and that it has been untainted by the Fall. Pelagius (a fourth-fifth century British monk with influence in Rome and Palestine), taught against the doctrine of Original Sin. We are not sinners by nature, but only by action. Theoretically, we could make the right choices all of our life, and only if we failed in actual fact would we be sinners. The doctrine was and is very attractive to those who want to hold a high view of human dignity and a low view of human depravity. Pelagianism has a lot in common with New Age beliefs. Pelagius was opposed by Augustine and Jerome, who insisted that we are saved by grace, and because of original sin and our fallen nature, must be saved by grace. By grace, according to them we continue in obedience. They are, in essence, the first Protestants. Many of Augustine’s beliefs, while embraced by Catholicism, are refuted at the same time. Historic Catholicism, especially the Council of Trent emphasize the need for good works to accompany faith, to the point where they become a means of justification – at least in the eyes of some.
Pelagianism is at root the denial of original sin. Many of the statements of the Council of Orange address Pelagian doctrinal concerns. The Confession VI,4 clearly refutes Pelagianism, and is written to that end. (Gal. 2:15-16)
4.7 The Doctrine of Justification
In Chapter XI of the Confession, it is made clear that Christ’ obedience and his alone brings justification to the one who believes. What is made clear is that the no action by the individual can add to or is necessary to complete the actions of Christ on their behalf. It is an imputed righteousness by a federal head, as in Adam. Thus in scripture, Christ is called the second Adam (I Cor. 15:45, Psalm 8).
An element which crept into the thinking of the church in the second century was the belief in Mary as the second Eve, an idea first put forward by Irenaeus. Ideas of Mary’s special status as Theotokos, perpetual virgin, intercessor, co-redemptrix, and finally immaculately conceived, and assumed (taken bodily) into heaven. These were ideas that accompanied the belief that Christ’s human nature required a sinless vessel. Augustine actually put forward the belief that the contamination of sexual intercourse was the means by which the sin nature was passed from parent to child. Thus celibacy in general, and Mary’s perpetual celibacy specifically, became a superior, even necessary status for priests in Roman Catholicism.
Discussion Questions:
1. How would you describe the dominion mandate? What is its purpose? 2. Is animism completely false? Why or why not? 3. What is it about “faith teaching” and the authority of the believer that violates the doctrine of God and Creation? Is there anything good about it? 4. Is sin always a choice? 5. Does the doctrine of total depravity go too far? 5. Why is Pelagius wrong?
Readings for Chapter Four
Council of Orange Elwell Pelagius Augustine Lossky Meyendorf Trent Williams
Council Watch
Nicea (325 A.D.): The Council which established the divinity of Christ as orthodox belief. It was in opposition to Arius who taught that Christ was a created being. Athanasius was the champion of Nicene Christianity.
Constantinople (381 A.D.): Established the divinity of the Holy Spirit, and thus the Trinity. It was opposed to the pneumatomachoi (fighters against the Spirit) who denied the personality and divinity of the Spirit. The Cappadocians Gregory Nyssa, Gregory Nazianzen and Basil of Caesarea were the champions of the Trinity. The Nicene Creed was finalized here.
Trent (!645-63): The council of the counter-reformation called to address the theological and ecclesiastical crisis brought on by the Protestant Reformation. It affirmed the Nicene Creed, authority of scripture and tradition, the church as the only interpreter of scripture. “Its decrees on Original Sin and on Justification and Merit struck at the root of the Protestant system.”(E.A Livingstone, ed., The Concise Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church, New York: Oxford University Press, 1977, pp. 520-1)
Glossary
Fall of Man: The doctrine that Adam and Eve fell through their disobedience, losing their relationship with God, and their place in paradise. The consequences of their disobedience affected their posterity and the creation itself.Iniquity: A twistedness of nature or character, sinful in nature. Glorification: The doctrine whereby the redeemed in Christ ultimately share in his glorified nature (body) and a place of privilege in heaven without actual taking on his deity. Justification by Faith: The belief that Christ’s obedience and sacrifice at Calvary, and faith in that work, are sufficient to obtain forgiveness and a blameless position before God the Father completely apart from any works on the part of the justified persons. Mariology: Doctrines about the person and role of Mary in redemption which give her a place as God-bearer, Second Eve, intercessor, and co-redemptrix. These beliefs are held in varying degrees by Roman Catholics and Eastern Orthodox, but are rejected by Protestants. Original Sin: The sin of Adam whereby the entire race was counted guilty and inherited a fallen nature suffering corruption and death through the first Adam.Pelagius, Pelagianism: A British monk who died in the early fifth century and who emphasized the role of human will in salvation and the ability of mankind to obey the commands of God unaided. He denied original sin and considered human nature to be neutral at birth.Transgression: A sinful act which crosses a boundary. Actual or active sin as opposed to iniquity which is a distortion of nature.
Bibliography
R. Laird Harris, Gleason L. Archer, and Bruce K. Waltke. Theological Wordbook of the Old Testament. Chicago: Moody Bible Institue, 1980.
Henry Bettenson. Documents of the Christian Church, Second Edition. London: Oxford University Press, 1963.
Walter Elwell, ed. Evangelical Dictionary of Theology. Grand Rapids: Baker Book House, 1984. E.A. Livingstone, ed. The Concise Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church. New York: Oxford University Press, 1977.
Vladimir Lossky. Orthodox Theology: An Introduction. Crestwood, NY: St. Vladimir’s Semianry Press, 1978. John Meyendorff. Byzantine Theology: Historical Trends and Doctrinal Themes. New York: Fordham University Press, 1974.
Maria Warner. Alone of All Her Sex: The Myth and the Cult of the Virgin Mary. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1976. J. Rodman Williams. Renewal Theology. Grand Rapids: Zondervan Publishing Co., 1988.
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Pastor P. Steve Paulus D.min. ~ pastor@stauntongrace.org
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