Pastor Steve Paulus

Patrology Part Three

The Development of Ecclesiastical Office and Pastoral Ministry

in the Church of the First Six Centuries

A Survey of Key Issues.

Ministry: Charisma or Office

Ministry as Charismatic gift in the NT

Ministry as an appointed office in the NT

Church Office in the Second and Third Centuries

Forms of Church Government in Post Reformation Confessions

III. Ministry as Appointed Office in the NT

A. Church Office in the New Testament

1. Elder, presbuteros: Comparative of old. This word does not contain the negative elements concerning age such as palaios, but rather indicates dignity and respectability -- the concept of honoring age. In classical and Hellenistic literature a presbyter can be the president of a college, and the word is used in numerous judicial and governing functions in Hellenism. Usually it indicates a group or college of elders who serve as judges or governors, often responsible for the finances and decision making of an organization. Elder can be used as a term for age, but also, and for our purposes especially, for office.

In the OT, the concept of elder has a long history. Presbuteros is the LXX translation for the Hebrew zaqayn. The concept is found in numerous passages such as Num. 11:6. (Other examples are Deut. 12:23; Jos. 7:6; Ju. 2:7; I Kings 8:1) . They seem to operate independently from the kings, prophets and judges.

In the NT elders are found in the Jerusalem church functioning alongside the apostles. This is especially evident in the section on the Jerusalem Council (Acts 15:4). Paul and Barnabas ordained elders to give leadership to their churches to the end of their first mission trip. Paul summoned the elders from Ephesus (Acts 20:20) and clearly defined the nature of their work and manner in which they were raised up, emphasizing their accountability to God. Their work was pastoral (poimnein), governmental, and doctrinal (implied).

Peter, the apostle refers to himself as a sumpresbuterion, and equates the elders work with that of a shepherd through direct inference (I Peter 5:1-4). He refers to specific temptations of elders as lust for power, greed and mechanical fulfillment of duties. These indicate that elders had power over funds, or were paid for their work. They also had a governing function within the congregation; thus the warning about misuse of their authority. Finally, office carried with it no guarantee of spiritual zeal. Note the contrast in verse 5 with between the concept of office and age; i.e. "You younger ones submit to the elder ones, etc."

Elders in the NT were considered worthy of double honor (diples times), particularly those who ruled well (proestotes) and labored (kopiontes) in word and doctrine. This passage seems to indicate that one or more elders could distinguish themselves and be considered worthy of compensation and perhaps a special place of recognition and honor in the congregation. It is possible that we see here the seed of the concept of an office distinct from and superior to that of other elders. This office would possibly be held by one individual within the congregation.

James 5:14-16 indicates that the elders acting in unison possess the charismatic gifts of faith and healing. "Is any one of you sick? He should call the elders of the church to pray over him and anoint him with oil in the name of the Lord. And the prayer offered in faith will make the sick person well; the Lord will raise him up. If he has sinned he will be forgiven. Therefore confess (exomologeisthe) your sins to each other and pray for each other so that you may be healed. The prayer of a righteous man is powerful and effective" (James 5:14-16). An element of sacramentalism is seen here, including exomologesis and anointing of the sick, both including the power to "loose" from the bonds of sin.

Titus 1 seems clearly to equate the office of bishop and elder. The list of qualifications is very similar to that of I Tim. 3 for the episkopes. It is interesting to note that the episkopes in I Timothy is an office which can be desired. Again the idea of willingness, desire and giftedness come to the fore.

Summary: In general, elder is an office possessing a long history and recognized in Judaism as well as the classical Hellenistic world. The term can refer to age, but for our purposes is more often used for office. It early makes its appearance in the NT. Its NT use seems very similar to that found in Judaism; i.e. plurality with responsibility for guiding and managing the affairs of the local assembly. Some element of sacerdotalism (sacred functions reserved to the elders) is evident even in NT sources.

2. Bishop, episkopos: This term and its derivatives in classical Greek carry the meaning, "To look upon, to consider, to have regard to someone or something." It can mean "to inspect," and in a religious sense "to look graciously upon, to care for, or to watch over"; or "to examine, to submit to investigation;" also, "to visit," as in visiting the sick. In the LXX it is used to translate words which indicate "to investigate, to search, to find out about something, to care for something." When used in the LXX in reference to Yahweh, "to visit," may mean in blessing or judgment (Zech. 10:3). It also may mean to appoint. (Jer. 6:15, 10:15, or Is. 10:3). It carries the sense of office in Num. 4:16.

In rabbinic Judaism the term carries the pastoral and charitable concept of visiting the sick, caring for the poor, helping the newly married poor, comforting the sorrowing and attending funerals. Jesus uses the term to describe visiting the sick and in prison.

In the NT it carries the meaning of "being concerned about someone or something." (See Acts 15:36; Heb. 12:4; Luke 1). Episcopate as office is seen in Acts 1:16 and I Tim. 3. The offices of bishop, elder and pastor are shown to be interchangeable in Act 20: 20ff., and I Peter 5:1-4. Later developments contribute to the separation of the offices.

This office is associated with a Greek terms for office holders and is believed by some to especially designate spiritual office in Hellenistic congregations. Still others see the office of bishop (episkopos) to be related to the mebaqqer of the synagogue as found in the Damascus Document. This officer (archisunagogos) was given the responsibility to direct the worship of the synagogue, in conjunction with his assistants, who functioned in a similar vein as the NT deacons. These functioned alongside the eldership of the synagogue. It is possible that the distinct office of bishop can be traced to this office in Judaism and it may explain the historical connection between the cooperative relationship between the office of bishop and the office of deacon. The deacon assisting the bishop in the execution of his oversight (Phil. 1:1ff).

3. Pastor, poimen: In ancient usage, the term was used descriptively of leaders of nations, kings, etc. In the OT it is used of Yahweh (Is. 40:11), especially in Ps. 23. Ez. 34, Jer. 3:15 and 23:4 refer to the shepherds of Israel, the spiritual leaders. In the NT Jesus refers to himself as the Good Shepherd. He is referred to as shepherd in I Peter 2:25, linking the shepherd image with bishop, I Peter 5:4 (Chief shepherd), and Heb. 13: 20 (the great shepherd). The image of the shepherd refers to protection, care, dedication, and feeding (in a spiritual sense).

The office of shepherd is mentioned only once in the NT (Eph. 4:11). However, shepherding activity is mentioned in numerous places, especially in conjunction with the office of elder or bishop (Acts 20:20; I Peter 5:2). There is some conjecture that the five-fold ministry is really the four-fold ministry, linking the office of pastor and teacher. The NT description of the charismatic gifting of shepherd would imply a ministry of personal relationship, personal care or counseling, protection from spiritual harm, such as false doctrine or movements, and teaching of sound doctrine. The people of God, in turn, are often referred to as the flock (I Peter 2:25; John 10:16).

4. Deacon, Deaconess, diakoneo: is one of many terms indicating the concept of service. This word most closely means a service of love. In classical usage it means "to provide or care for." In the classical world service was always an inferior and demeaning position In Judaism it most nearly means "to wait at table," or more widely, "to supervise the meal." Paul had assistants who performed diaconal service to him (Acts 19:22, Phlm. 13). Eventually all ministry could be seen as a form of diakonia (I Cor. 12:4).

Diakonos as office is mentioned in conjunction with the bishop in I Tim. 3:1ff. The office of deaconess is also mentioned, or possibly the deacon's wife. Phoebe of Cenchraea is mentioned as a deaconess in Rom. 16:1. In addition, an office of widow is apparently mentioned in I Tim. 5. (Review Luke 2, Anna, Acts 9, Dorcas)

5. Priest, hierus: Comes from the Hebrew kun (Later cohayn) meaning to stand before. Thus a standing before god to minister (in behalf of men). This includes a sacerdotal and mediatorial function. Priesthood is well developed in the OT. In the NT church the term is virtually neglected. It is never used as a term for office, except concerning Jesus. Heb. 5:1, 7:25, 7:11-14; Tim 2:5. Believers are called a priesthood in I Peter 2:5; Rev. 1:6; 5:10; 20:6. Some references taken from Ex. 19:6. It is after the first century that the concept of the priestly nature of spiritual office is emphasized. The bishop becomes authorizer of the sacraments (Ignatius, et. al.) and the mediator of forgiveness (esp. Cyprian) in a right associated with exomologesis. Thus NT citations relating to the keys become important. By the third century a clearly priestly scheme citing the OT has developed.

B. Appointment to Office (Ordination) in the NT: The Meaning and Purpose of Ordination.

1. OT antecedents: Joshua, Num. 27:15-20,23; Deut. 34:9

David, I Sam. 16: 12-13.

2. NT Examples

a. Recognition (Public citation, letters of commendation): I Cor.16:15-16; I Cor. 16:3; Rom. 16:1ff.; Col. 4:10; II Cor. 3:1-3. The latter verse indicating that Paul's ministry was vindicated by the fruit it bore (refer to Numbers 17). Apparently there was a power struggle of sorts in the Corinthian church, and the authenticity of Paul's ministry was called into question. This became a primary reason for recognized ordained ministry in the future (e.g. I Clement).

b. Cheirotonein: To choose by stretching out the hand. Implies a process of selection. (II Cor. 8:19, Acts 14:23) The latter example more fully carries the meaning of ordination. Was some sort of selection or recognition process involved, or simply an appointment as in Titus 1:5?

c. Epitithenai tas cheiras: laying on of hands. "D. Daube argues that behind the one expression, 'the laying on of hands", lie two Hebrew terms conveying different ideas. There is first samak, 'to lean one's hand upon someone or something'. The idea here is that by pressing in this way upon a person or animal in this way you were pouring your personality into him or it; or in other words, you were making him or it into your substitute'. Second there is sim or shith, to place one's hands, which is used when blessing is conferred and the main element is touch." Daube maintains that samak is commissioning, sim/sith associated with healing (Giles, p.185). New Testament (Acts 6:6; Acts 13:3;I Tim. 4:14;1:18-19; II Tim.1:6, 13-14; 2:1ff. In the case of the ordination of the seven there is a process of selection (Acts 6:3,5) rather than mere appointment by the apostles.

3. Sacramental character: I Tim. 4:14;1:18-19; II Tim.1:6, 13-14; 2:1ff . The ordination of Timothy resembles rabbinic practice (Study of Liturgy, p. 297). Timothy is also urged to "protect the deposit, and commit it to faithful men." the concept of reliable preservation of the tradition through trusted (and ordained) men is foundational to the concept of apostolic succession and belief in the purity, correctness and reliability of the bishop's office. Thus truth later becomes embodied in an office, and by implication and practice, in the office holder, i.e the bishop who is successor of the apostles through ordination. A gift is not only recognized but actually imparted in the Pastoral account of ordination. Is this an indelible impartation of vocation? Recognition or impartation?

4. Later developments

a. The rite of ordination (Who can perform)

i. Biblical models: Apostolic ordination, or apostolic delegates. (Acts 6; Act 14; Titus 1). Is there such a thing as self-ordination or self-appointment? The case of Apollos.

ii. Historical models:

Clement chapters 40-44;

Apostolic succession, duration (permanent office?), an indelible gift or nature imparted?

"And our apostles knew through the Lord Jesus Christ that there would be strife over the name of the bishop's office. For this cause therefore, having received complete foreknowledge, they appointed the aforesaid persons and afterwards, they provided a continuance, that if these should fall asleep, other approved men should succeed to their ministration." (Lightfoot, p. 32, Clement, ch. 44)

Canon law re: methodology:

"It is by all means proper that a bishop should be appointed by all the bishops in the province; but should this be difficult, either on account of urgent necessity or because of distance, three at least should meet together, and the suffrages of the absent (bishops) also being given and communicated in writing, then the ordination should take place. but in every province the ratification of what is done should be left to the Metropolitan(Canon iv, Nicea)

"That if any bishop be deposed by the sentence of these neighboring bishops, and assert that he has fresh matter in defense, a new bishop shall not be settled in his see, unless the bishop of Rome judge and render a decision as to this." (Canon iv, Sardica, 343-4)

Rise of sacerdotalism: Eucharistic prayer in Didache separate from agape feast. In Justin the President of the assembly, or bishop offers prayer for the elements.

Present day interpretation:

"Therefore there exists a single Church of Christ which subsists in the Catholic Church, governed by the successor of Peter and by the Bishops in communion with him. The churches which, while not existing imperfect communion with the Catholic Church, remain united to her by the closest bonds, that is, by apostolic succession and a valid Eucharist are true particular Churches. Therefore the Church of Christ is present and operative also in these Churches, even though they lack full communion with the Catholic Church, since they do not accept the Catholic doctrine of the Primacy, which, according to the will of God, the Bishop of Rome objectively has and exercises over the entire Church.

On the other hand, the ecclesial communities which have not preserved the valid Episcopate and the genuine and integral substance of the Eucharistic mystery, are not Churches in the proper sense.; however, those who are baptized in these communities are, by Baptism, incorporated in Christ and thus are in a certain communion, albeit imperfect, with the Church. Baptism in fact tends per se toward the full development of life in Christ, through the integral profession of faith, the Eucharist, and full communion in the church....Therefore, these separated Churches are communities as such, though we believe they suffer from defects ... For the Spirit of Christ has not refrained from using them as means of salvation which derive their efficacy from the very fullness of grace and truth entrusted to the Catholic Church." (Declaration "Dominus Iesus" on the Unicity and Salvific Universality of Jesus Christ and the Church, section 17).

5. Excursus: Theories of Authority (from Weber)

a. Rational grounds: resting on the belief in the legality of enacted rules and the right of those elevated to authority under such rules to issue commands (legal authority).

b. Traditional grounds: resting on an established belief in the sanctity of immemorial traditions and the legitimacy of those exercising authority under them (traditional authority); or

c. Charismatic grounds: resting on devotion to the exceptional sanctity, heroism or exemplary character of an individual person, and of the normative patterns or order revealed or ordained by him (charismatic authority).

(All of the above from Giles, Patterns of Ministry Among the First Christians, p. 176).

Bibliography for Section III:

Beyer, Hermann W. "Diakoneo, Diakonia, diakonos," In Theological Dictionary of the New Testament, vol. ii. Gerhard Kittel, ed., Geoffrey W. Bromiley, trans. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1964. pp. 81-93. Hereafter referred to as TDNT.

_______________. "Episkepeptomai, episkopeo, episkope, episkopos, allotriepiskopos," in TDNT, vol. ii. pp. 599-622.

Bornkamm, Gunther. "Presbus, presbu teros, presbutes, sumpresbuteros, presbyterion, presbeuo," in TDNT, vol. vi. pp. 651-683.

Cox, Geoffrey S. R. "The Emerging Organization of the Church in the New Testament and the Limitations Imposed Thereon." Evangelical Quarterly 38 (1966) pp. 22- 39.

Fee, G.D. " Priest in the New Testament." ZPEB, vol iv. pp. 848-52.

Feinberg, C.L. "Priests and Levite." ZPEB, vol. iv, pp. 852-67.

Jeremias, Joachim. "Poimen, archipoimen, poimaino, poimen, poimnion," in TDNT, in vol vi. pp. 485-502.

Jones, Cheslyn, Geoffrey Wainwrifgt, Edward Yarnold, eds. "Ordination," in The Study of Liturgy. New York: Oxford University Press, 1978. pp. 289-349.

Rengstorf, Karl Heinrich. "Apostello (pempo), exapostello, apostolos, pseudapostolos, apostole" in TDNT, vol.i. pp. 398-447.

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