Pastor Steve Paulus

Patristics Part Two

Nicene and Post Nicene Church

The Schism between Orthodoxy and Catholicism

VI. The Nicene and Post-Nicene Church

A. Constantine, Religious Toleration, and the Edict of Milan (313)

Overview and preview: Diocletian, a Dalmatian Emperor of Rome (284-305), initiated the final persecution of the church. (Maximian was his co-ruler and continued to 312). They sought the protection of the gods Jupiter and Hercules, and divided the administration into districts called dioceses. These district divisions were later used by the church to mark off episcopal districts. In the year 295 there were soldier-martyrs (Maximillian). In 298 Marcellus was a soldier-martyr, but the reason is uncertain. They apparently refused to serve, or refused to engage in pagan rites required for the military.

In 297 the Manichaean sect was persecuted. In the punishment of Christians and others, leaders were burned alive, scriptures were destroyed, others were put to death, property was confiscated, others were banished and put to hard labor. In 303 Christianity was directly outlawed. In 304, public sacrifices to the gods were renewed, (punishment for non-compliance: death, hard labor, slavery). Several laws were published calling for the destruction of churches, forbidding assemblies, scriptures were burned, imperial servants became slaves.

March 303… Imperial edicts were published everywhere ordering that the churches be razed to the ground, that the scriptures be destroyed by fire, that those holding office be deposed and they of the household be deprived of freedom, if they persisted in the profession of Christianity…other edicts were issued, which enjoined that the rulers of the churches in every place be first imprisoned, and thereafter every means be used to compel them to sacrifice.

April 304…Imperial edicts were issued, in which by a general decree, it was ordered that all the people without exception should sacrifice in the several cities and offer libations to the idols (Eusebius, quoted in Documents of the Christian Church, 2^nd edtion, Henry Bettenson, ed. London: Oxford University Press, p. 14).

In 311, Galerius tolerates Christianity:

We therefore in consideration of our most mild clemency, and of the unbroken custom whererby we are used to grant pardon to all men, have thought it right in this case also to offer our speediest indulgence, that Christians may exist again, and may establish their meeting houses, yet so that they do nothing contrary to good order…(From Stevenson, NE p.296).

In 313, Licinius and Constantine meet in Milan and agree on freedom of all religions. They issued the Edict of Milan. This changes the legal circumstances of the Church, making Christianity religio licita (a legal religion) -- a watershed event. Constantine begins intervening in the affairs of the church. (e.g. the Donatist controversy, the council of Nicea).

The document embodies, (1) complete religious toleration, a principle on which Constantine never went back, though his toleration of paganism became more contemptuous. (2) Provisions for the restoration of property which the Christians, either individually or corporately, had been deprived during the persecution, with state compensation for any who suffered loss by this measure. (Stevenson, NE, p. 302).

A letter from Donatist bishops requests Constantine's intervention by sending judges from Gaul to adjudicate the problems of the North African Church. He is praised that his father did not persecute Christians and that Gaul was "immune from this crime."

Constantine orders Miltiades, Bishop of Rome, to investigate the charges by the bishops of North Africa against Caecillianus, bishop of Carthage. "Since it does not escape the notice of your Carefulness that the respect which I pay to the lawful Catholic Church is so great, that it is my wish that you leave no schism whatsoever, or division in any place."(Constantine, Letter to Miltiades, NE, p.318).

Were Constantine’s motives political or spiritual? Did he interevene in the Donatist controversy out of concern for the purity of the faith of the one true church, or out of concern for the effect of a divisive ecclesiastical schism in the heart of the Latin Roman Empire?

B. The Arian Controversy and the Council of Nicea: Personalities and Parties

Alexander, bishop of Alexandria and his presbyter, Arias fell into a dispute concerning the divinity of Christ, Arias claiming that Jesus was a created being. Eusebius of Nicomedia in Bythinia (not the church historian from Caesarea) was an influential bishop who favored Arias. The controversy spread far and wide and Constantine was integral to calling an ecumenical council to resolve the dispute. The Council was held in 325 near present day Constantinople. It was attended by many from every sector of the East. Hosius of Cordova, Spain and papal envoys represented the west, primarily to settle the question of the divinity of Christ.

The Creed of Nicaea stated in part:

And in one Lord Jesus Christ, the Son of God, begotten of the Father as only begotten, that is, from the essence of the Father, God from God, Light from Light, true God from true God, begotten not created, of the same essence [reality] as the Father [homoousion], though whom all things came into being, both in heaven and in earth…(Creeds of the Churches, Leith, p. 31).

This creed became the basis for the later Constantinopalitan-Nicene Creed, known simply as the Nicene Creed.

Another development of the Nicene Council was the importance of canons vi and vii which established or confirmed the jurisdictional powers of the metropolitan bishops of Alexandria, Rome, and Antioch, and recognize the metropolitan status of the bishop at Jerusalem even though the church was small and the city sparsely populated.. These canons and the implication of a “pecking order” of metropolitan churches would profoundly affect relations among apostolic churches and especially the relationship between the bishop of Rome and the bishops of other apostolic sees.

1. Athanasius of Alexandria, Doctor of the Church (c. 295-373)

As a deacon and advisor to Alexander, Bishop of Alexandria, he was instrumental in the fight against Arianism at the Council of Nicea (325). That is, he staunchly defended the divinity of Christ against Arian claims that Christ was a created being. He was installed as Bishop of Alexandria in 328 A.D. In the aftermath of Nicea and the struggle between Arian and Nicene ecclesiastical and political parties, Athanasius was banished and returned from his see five times during his life.

The writings of Athanasius fall into several categories (Hamell, p. 96-7). These are: apologetic, dogmatic, historico-polemical, exegetical, and festal letters, among others. His most significant works defend the Trinity. Orationis contra Arianos IV (Oration against Arias) and Letter IV to Serapias, refuting the doctrine that the Holy Spirit is a created being are among the most significant of his dogmatic works. The Festal Letter of 367 is the first extant complete listing of the New Testament Canon (27 books) as we know it today.

2. Eusebius of Caesarea (c. 265-340)

About 315 Eusebius was made Bishop of Caesarea in Palestine (shortly after the Edict of Toleration). He was a friend and supporter of Constantine. He was considered to be Semi-Arian. He did not use the Nicean term homoousios in his writing. He presided at the Synod of Tyre in 335, deposing Athanasius -- possibly for refusing to receive back repentant Arians. He is considered the father of Church history.

His historical works include Chronicles, a sacred and secular history. His most revered work is his Ecclesiastical History. This work preserves in writing many documents otherwise lost. He also wrote numerous exegetical, apologetic and doctrinal treatises.

C. Post-Nicea: Political and Ecclesiastical Controversies after the Death of Constantine

1. Overview of emperors and the post-Nicene period

a. Constantius to Theodosius.

Emperor Constantius (337-61): Arianism revived through him. The influence of Eusebius of Nicomedia (not the Church historian from Caesarea) was particularly strong during his reign. Eusebius signed Nicea, but understood it in different terms. He was responsible for the banishment of Athanasius and Marcellus of Ancyra. They were received by Rome, thus igniting a controversy over jurisdiction. The Council of Serdica (Sophia, 342-3) was called by Constantius to unite east and west over Arian and jurisdictional questions, but actually accomplished the opposite. The council split into eastern and western factions. The west upheld papal authority and condemned the Arianizing bishops, Valens of Mursa (Osijek) and Ursacius of Singidunum (Belgrade) for siding with Greek Arianizing bishops (Chadwick, 139-40ff). Constantius favored Arianism, and was influenced by Valens of Mursa.

In 361-3, Julian, called the Apostate, came to imperial power. He sought to revive paganism and re-called Nicene bishops, hoping to spark a destructive rivalry in the church.

Julian was followed by Valens (364-78), another Arianizing emperor.

Theodosius (378-395) came to the throne, a strong pro-Nicene emperor. During his reign Arian influence ceased permanently in the Roman Empire. He called the Second Ecumenical Council, the Council of Constantinople.

b. Resurgent Arianism, semi-Arianism, and Pneumatomachoi (fighters against the Spirit), led by Macedonius denied the divinity of the Holy Spirit. The Council of Constantinople (381) settled the issue of the divinity of the Holy Spirit and the doctrine of the Trinity. Canon iii of Constantinople became very controversial in years to come as it altered the established order of jurisdiction in the Church. Canon iii, “The Bishop of Constantinople, however, shall have the prerogative of honor after the Bishop of Rome; because Constantinople is new Rome.”

2. Cyril of Jerusalem , Doctor of the Church (313-386)

He was bishop of Jerusalem from 348 A.D. He fell into controversy over canon vii of the Nicean Council. “As bishop of Caesarea, Acacia exercised Metropolitan jurisdiction over the Bishops of Palestine. But Cyril presiding over an Apostolic See, ‘the Mother of all the churches,’ claimed exemption from the jurisdiction of Caesarea, and higher rank than its bishop. It is not alleged, nor is it probable that Cyril claimed jurisdiction over other Bishops. The rights and privileges of his see had been clearly defined by the 7^th Canon of the Council of Nicea: ‘as custom and ancient tradition show that the Bishop of Aelia (Jerusalem) ought to be honored, let him have precedence in honor, without prejudice to the proper dignity of the Metropolitan See.’” (Nicene and Post Nicene Fathers, Philip Schaff, ed.). He was anti-Arian, and was banished from his see three times, 357, 360, 367 (Hamell, p. 99). Fire fell on the workers rebuilding their temple in his time. He had predicted the failure of the work (Hamell, p. 99,100). Also a great bright cross was seen in the sky at the commencement of his episcopate which was taken as a sign of God’s favor on him and on the empire. Of his written works he is most famous for his Catechesis (Lectures to Catechumens preparing for baptism) of which there are twenty four including the introduction.

D. Rise of Monasticism

After Christianity became religio licita, and martyrdom was no longer a common experience of Christians, it was thought that those who wanted to wholly devote themselves to God should separate themselves to the Lord through the newly emerging practice of monasticism. In this way they could be “soldiers for God.”

The founder of eremetic (from Greek for desert or solitary, thus hermit) monasticism was Antony of Egypt in the early fourth century. Eremetic monasticism is the practice of seeking spiritual perfection through a solitary, ascetic life, usually in the desert or wilderness.

Pachomius, a convert to Christianity about 313 A.D. began to pursue a monastic life shortly after his conversion. He was a disciple of the hermit Palaeman. Later he founded a monastery near Tabennisi in Upper Egypt near the Nile River. Adherents flocked to him. He oversaw nine monasteries for men and two for women at the time of his death. He wrote a rule for the regulation of his monastery which influenced all later communal monasticism. He is considered the father of coenobitic (from Greek meaning life in common -- communal) monasticism.

Basil of Caesarea (Cappadocia, 329-379), a noted pro-Nicene theologian is considered the founder of eastern monasticism. Influenced by Pachomius, his rule emphasized greater moderation in spiritual discipline than did the Egyptian ascetics. He founded a monastery near Caesarea (in Cappadocia) which emphasized service and ministry to the poor as part of community life.

John Cassian(360-435) spent time in monasteries in Bethlehem and Egypt. He is most famous for founding of two monasteries in the west, near Marseilles about 415. His two major written works, “Institutions” and “Conferences” influenced the acknowledged father of western monasticism Benedict of Nursia. Cassian’s work “Institutions” was probably first conceived through contact with the Egyptian monastic Evagrius. It detailed the eight (later seven) deadly sins which inhibit the attainment of spiritual perfection. They are variously listed as gluttony, fornication (lust), covetousness, anger, dejection, accidie (hopeless despair), vainglory, and pride. Two of these eight were later combined in various systems to make seven.

Benedict of Nursia was educated at Rome, but withdrew to practice eremetic monasticism. He was disturbed with the licentiousness of life in Rome. He was soon joined by others, and eventually founded the famous monastery at Monte Cassino. In all he founded twelve monasteries of twelve monks each plus an abbot. He is considered the father of western monasticism. His lasting contribution is the rule for communal monastic life. He borrowed heavily from the church fathers and earlier monasticism (Basil, John Cassian, et. al.) His rule consisted of up to four hours of reading scripture and the fathers. Also, the divine office, personal prayer and manual labor were required of the monks.

All of western monasticism, well into the Middle Ages, was based on the Rule of Benedict, including the rule at Cluny and among the Cistercians (below). Other followers of Benedict’s Rule were involved in the Carolingian revival and were influential writers and scholars. A school for young boys, a library and a scriptorium (place of copying manuscripts) were standard features of a Benedictine monastery. The Benedictine influence declined after the rise of scholasticism and universities in the west. Before that time the Cluniac and Cistercian reforms called for a strict observance of the Benedictine Rule.

Cluny (France) was the leading monastery of the medieval monastic reform movement. It was founded in 909 in Burgundy. It became the most influential force in western Christendom for over two centuries and inspired the reforms of Pope Gregory VII in the mid-11^th century (i.e. enforcement of clerical celibacy, curbing of simony). Led by numerous able abbots including Berno of Baume, St. Ado, and Peter the Venerable it emphasized closer adherence to the Benedictine Rule. It also emphasized longer periods of corporate worship and choir service. Less stress was laid on manual labor. In addition, freedom from lay control over the financial affairs of the monasteries was sought by the reform. Cluny and monasteries associated with it were free form the control of the secular power. They were accountable directly to the Pope. The success of the Cluny reform, and the international character of the congregation lent great strength to the papacy. This was a leading catalyst in the revival of the papacy as an ecclesiastical/political institution. The reforming Pope Urban was a former Cluniac monk. At its height over 1,000 monasteries were aligned with the Cluniac order including some houses in Great Britain.

Bernard, son of a nobleman, became a novice at the monastery of Citeaux in 1112. Three years later he founded what became the most influential house of the Cistercian order at Clairvaux. The Cistercians advocated a return to the primitive Benedictine Rule with added austerities of enforced silence. Manual labor was returned to a primary place in the discipline. Their houses were erected in aloof, wilderness areas. Cistercians became pioneers at farming difficult land. In England, they pioneered sheep farming.

The house at Clairvaux became parent to seventy other houses. At the turn of the 13^th century there were 530 Cistercian houses. 150 more were added that century. Many influential churchmen came from that order including Pope Eugenius III. Bernard is remembered as the most influential Christian leader of his day.. He wrote many letters, treatises, and sermons which are extant today. These include “Grace and Freewill,” “Loving God,” and “Sermons on the Song of Solomon.” He also preached the Second Crusade and sought the recognition of the new order the Knights Templar. He was involved in several disputes; one of the most famous impugning the orthodoxy of Abelard. For the most part Bernard is remembered as a mystic and one of the greatest monastic reformers in church history.

E. Excursus: The Doctrine of Celibacy

One of the most significant developments in the life of the early church is its insistence on the practice of clerical celibacy. Different practices emerged in the east and west. The practice of clerical celibacy has played a role in the life and controversies of the church until today.

Early Developments: Biblically, the issue of widowhood is addressed in various OT texts. “The Lord is defender of the widow and fatherless,” and there is a duty to care for the widow from the offerings (Ex.22:22; Dt.14:29; 24:17; 27:19). This concern for orphans and widows is echoed in James 1:27. Jesus spoke of those who made themselves eunuchs for the sake of the kingdom of heaven (Matt. 19:12) In Luke, Anna is a widow of 84 years who remained in the temple to pray and fast (Luke 2:36-38). It is the overlooking of Grecian widows in the daily distribution which causes the first internal crisis in the church (Acts 6:1ff.) thus establishing the fact that they had formed a group for whom care was expressed by the church. Acts 9: 39,41, indicates that there may have been an order of widows (hai cherai) in Palestine during the ministry of Peter. Paul encouraged the celibate lifestyle as one that offered freedom, but did not forbid marriage (I Cor. 7:8-9; 32-5). I Tim. 5:9-10ff. shows that widows were cared for and enrolled in a “list.”

Order of widows : Polycarp of Smyrna, mentions widows and virgins. In particular, he refers to the widows as “the altar of God” emphasizing their ministry of intercessory prayer. Reference to widows and virgins as a designated class in the church grows in the Patristic literature. The unmarried state of widows is one which calls for special consideration in the church. The addition of younger unmmaried virgins adds to the numbers of those with special status in the church. Canons concerning celibacy appear as early as the councils of Elvira, c. 305, and Ancyra, 314-319. Prior to this time I Tim. 3 and 5 (husband of one wife, wife of one husband), were interpreted to discourage or forbid digamy or remarriage after the loss of a husband or wife (e.g. the writings of Tertullian) and to extol remaining celibate after the death of a spouse. An order of widows and virgins appears in the Apostolic Tradition (c. 215) (Hamell, p. 83) of Hippolytus. Widows and virgins are mentioned as definite minor orders in the church at Rome. Cyprian, c. 250, (Augustine Raeder, p. 530) refers to virgins as “the flower on the tree of the church.” Augustine, writing in the fifth century, assigns a particular attainment of heavenly honor to virgins. It came to be believed that celibacy was a spiritually superior way of life.

There are also canons prohibiting so-called “spiritual marriages” or virgins subintroductae, that is women and men pledged to celibacy living in the same house. Eventually, some form of celibacy was required of all major orders. Celibacy was extolled because of the erroneous belief that the fallen nature was communicated through sexual intercourse.

Distinctives between east and west. Canon 33 of Elvira (West), "Bishops, presbyters and deacons -- indeed, all clerics who have a place in the ministry [of the altar] -- shall abstain from their wives and shall not beget children -- this is a total prohibition: whoever does so, let him forfeit his rank among the clergy."(NE, p.307).

Canon 10 of Ancyra,

As many as are being ordained deacons if at the time of ordination they have made a declaration and stated that they must marry and cannot remain celibate, such persons, should they marry thereafter can remain in their office, as the bishop had granted them the right to marry at their ordination. But if any held their peace and accepted celibacy at their ordination , and afterwards marry, such persons shall cease from their ministry.(NE, p. 312).

Statements of Reformation Creeds: This issue continued to be a source of conflict in the church through the time of the Reformation.

Among all people both of high and low degree, there has been loud complaint throughout the world concerning the flagrant immorality and dissolute life of priests who were not able to remain continent and who went so far as to engage in abominable vices. In order to avoid such unbecoming offense, adultery, and other lechery, some of our priests have entered the married state...Since God's Word and command cannot be altered by any human vows or laws, our priests and other clergy have taken wives to themselves for these and other reasons and causes...

It was only four hundred years ago that the priests in Germany were compelled by force to take the vows of celibacy. At that time there was such serious and strong resistance that an archbishop of Mayence who had published the new papal decree was almost killed during an uprising of all the priests. The decree was enforced so hastily and indecently that the pope at the time not only forbade future marriages of priests, but also broke up the marriages which were of long standing. (Augsburg Confession (1530), Article xxiii, Creeds of the Churches, John Leith, ed., p. 80-81).

Bishops, Priests and Deacons are not commanded by God's Law either to vow the estate of the single life, or to abstain from marriage: therefore it is lawful for them, as for all other Christian men, to marry at their own discretion, as they shall judge the same to serve better to godliness. (Thirty-Nine Articles, (1563), article, xxxii, Leith, p. 277)

F. Summary of Important Doctrinal Developments

Several very important developments occur in this era. With the Edict of Toleration Christianity is now a legal religion, official persecution ceases, and the emperor sometimes intervenes in the affairs of the church even calling councils, such as Nicea. The Arian controversy is resolved at Nicea, affirming the divinity of Christ and introducing the term homoousios (same substance) to describe the relationship between the Father and the Son. The faith is protected against the doctrine that the Son is a creature and not of the same nature/substance as the Creator and thus not God. Monasticism is widely practiced as a way of obtaining Christian perfection. A by-product of this movement is the preservation of scriptures and scholarship through the activities of the monastery schools and scriptoriums. Monasteries are also engaged in efforts addressing wider issues of social welfare. The doctrine and practice of clerical celibacy becomes a widespread norm in much of the church, though practiced differently in east and west, and more or less standard in various western districts.

Sources

Apostolos N. Athanassakis, trans. The Life of Pachomius. Missoula, Montana: Scholars Press, 1975.

Henry Bettenson, ed. Documents of the Christian Church. London: Oxford University Press, 1963.

Henry Chadwick. The Early Church. Pengiun, 1967.

David Knowles. Christian Monasticism, 1969, rpt.1972, New York: MacGraw-Hill Book Co.

John Leith. Creeds of the Churches. Atlanta: John Knox Press, 1973.

Theodore Maynard. St. Benedict and His Monks. London: Staples Press, Ltd., 1955.

Henry Percival, ed. The Seven Ecumenical Councils in Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, Second Series, 2^nd edition, ed. Philip Schaff and Henry Wace, eds., Peabody, MA: Hendrickson Publishers, 1995

Stevenson. A New Eusebius

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