Pastor Steve Paulus

Patristics Part Two

The Church in North Africa

The Schism between Orthodoxy and Catholicism

V. The Church in North Africa

The church in Latin North Africa (Carthage as opposed to Greek-speaking Alexandria) was a font of Latin literature and theology. Though the church at Rome was older and enjoyed an esteemed place as the city where Peter and Paul had taught and were martyred, the North African church between 200 and 430 A.D. produced some of the church’s most radiant personalities and influential theologians. This period was marked by intense controversies. A central controversy involved the church’s authority to forgive what were known as the “mortal” sins of apostasy, adultery and murder. Does the power of the keys which Christ conferred upon the apostles empower the church to re-admit mortal sinners to its fellowship in Holy Communion?

Other related issues were the efficacy of the intercession of confessors and martyrs to obtain forgiveness of sins in behalf of others, whether schismatics should be re-baptized when reconciled to the Catholic Church, the efficacy of sacraments offered by schismatics and/or “lapsed” clergy, and the role of the rite of penance in restoring the lapsed to the church. These issues played an ongoing role in the tumultuous life of the North African Church from A.D. 200 to A.D. 430.

A. Tertullian:

Born in Carthage about 150 A.D., the son of a Roman official, a respected lawyer as an adult, converted to Christ about A.D. 197. He rose to prominence in the Catholic Church and excelled as a theologian; one of the first to write extensively in Latin. He embraced the heterodox Montanist movement, but later returned to the Catholic faith.

About 207 A.D. he embraced Montanism, breaking with the Catholic Church. His prolific writings (37 treatises are extant) are often classified as pre- and post- Montanist. In all of his writings a keen intellect and passionate faith are displayed. His Montanist writings are severe, even ascetic in character.

Tertullian addressed the various theological issues of his day. He refuted the gnostic heretic Marcion, was one of the earliest to teach on the Trinity, and wrestled with various aspects of church discipline including the nature of public confession and penitence, amusements allowed to Christians, remarriage, proper dress for women. In the context of the ongoing life of the church in North Africa his works “On Penitence” and “On Purity” are especially significant as well as his works on martyrdom.

His theological system permitted one repentance after baptism to be expressed through the rite of penance known by the Greek term exomologesis meaning public confession of sin. His treatise “On Purity” disallowed reconciliation with the church to those guilty of mortal sins, emphatically denying to the church the power to forgive them. This concept was rooted in the idea of the sin unto death mentioned in the epistle of I John about which one was not to pray. There is a sin that leads to death. I am not saying that he should pray about that ((I John 5: 16). He also questioned the special role of martyrdom in obtaining the forgiveness of sins.

B. Hippolytus (of Rome, 170-235):

A nobleman who wrote in Greek, and a disciple of Irenaus. He was ordained by Victor, Bishop of Rome, and was a well-known writer. He died as martyr under Maximinus. He opposed Pope Callistus for laxity in forgiving the sins of murder, adultery and fornication c. 217. Tertullian also opposed this policy. Hippolytus headed a faction and was counter bishop in Rome (anti-pope). Numerous writings are attributed to him. Especially notable are Refutation of all Heresies and The Apostolic Traditions which preserve information on church orders, ordination and liturgy, especially in the Roman church.

C. Cyprian:

Born to non-Christian parents in North Africa around the turn of the third century. He was converted to Christ around 245 and was constrained to become bishop of Carthage three years later. He led the church there during very tumultuous times and addressed some very difficult issues relating to church discipline. He was bishop during the persecution of emperor Decius, the Novatian schism, controversy over re-admitting lapsed (apostate) Christians, and a serious plague (c. 252-3). In his letters he describes numerous charismatic visitations experienced by himself as well as other clergy, laity, martyrs and confessors. He was martyred under Valerian in 258 A.D.

Cyprian’s most important writings were “The Lapsed” and “The Unity of the Catholic Church.” Both these grew out of the schisms and controversies surrounding the Decian persecution. The emperor had required his subjects to offer idolatrous sacrifice unto his genius, worshiping him as a god. Those who lapsed into this idolatry fell into several categories: 1) those who offered sacrifice, 2) those who encouraged others to offer sacrifice, 3) those who did not offer sacrifice but purchased a certificate (receipt) saying they had, 4) those who fled and did not offer sacrifice, 5) those who did not offer sacrifice and were imprisoned, or tortured, or suffered martyrdom. There were three parties in Carthage after this time of persecution and apostasy: First, Novationists who refused forgiveness for the mortal sin of apostasy. Second, Cyprian’s adherents who required public penance. Lastly, the party of Felicissimus who advocated lenient treatment of the lapsed, not even requiring public penance. To confuse the issue, many of the highly esteemed martyrs and confessors had issued certificates re-instating the apostates based on the efficacy of their intercessions as ones especially close to God. This action, of course, circumscribed the bishop’s authority and the rite of exomologesis (confession and penance), a pillar of North Africa church discipline. Cyprian saw this as a serious threat to the good order and health of the church. He was forced to walk a tightrope between these various positions.

Ultimately, Cyprian taught that apostates could re-enter the church after public confession of sin, a season of penance, and reconciliation through the laying on of hands of the bishop. This stance contradicted some aspect of the practice of every other party in the controversy. He also contended, like Tertullian before him, that only God could forgive sins. Unlike Tertullian, he believed the church could re-instate apostates after penance.

Cyprian also clashed with Stephen, bishop of Rome, over re-baptism of schismatics (those who are theologically orthodox, but have broken the unity of the church to form congregations not in communion with the Catholic bishop of a given region). His final position on the papacy was that all bishops were co-equal, the bishop of Rome enjoying greater honor, but not greater authority than the other bishops. “On the Unity of the Catholic Church” is a scathing attack against schismatics, denying salvation to any outside the administrative unity of the Catholic Church.

D. Novatian (of Rome):

Was a member of the Roman clergy to 251. He opposed Bishop Cornelius regarding the re-admittance of the lapsed believers into the Church. He was schismatic (not heretical), a respected theologian, and became counter-pope in Rome. The schism lasted several centuries, as did a party in the church bearing his name (Hamell, p. 84). The sect he founded, Novatianists, spread to parts of Asia Minor and North Africa. At Carthage he installed a bishop, a rival to Cyprian. Novatianists in Carthage followed the same severe, unbending procedure toward North African apostates as Novatian did in Rome.

E. Donatists:

A schismatic group in North Africa arising from a controversy following the Diocletian persecution (303-311). Again, the issue which caused division centered on the standing of apostates. Specifically, were sacraments offered by clergy who had surrendered the scriptures to authorities (traditores) valid? The Donatists claimed they were not.

The controversy broke out when Caecillianus was selected bishop of Carthage and was ordained by a traditore. Many of the bishops of the Numidian region objected and sought to install Majorinus in his place. Both parties appealed to emperor Constantine on several occasions. He referred the case to various bishops’ councils. Constantine intervened in behalf of Caecillianus’ party against the Donatists. Later, the Donatists were sometimes outlawed, sometimes re-instated. The Donatists viewed this persecution as a confirmation of their righteousness before God.

The controversy again intensified at the turn of the fifth century when Augustine was bishop of Hippo Regius (Latin North Africa). He made it his business to reconcile the Donatists to the Catholic Church through various polemical writings and councils. Because of the violence of the Donatist party (Catholic bishops were attacked and services disrupted on occasion), he also encouraged the use of imperial decree to force many of the Donatists to abandon their position. This practice would have grave consequences in future actions of the church. Restraining of criminal activity crossed over to the use of state authority to correct and punish heresy, thus making heresy a crime.

The fanatical Circumcillians were an active wing of the Donatist party. They resorted to violence in the defense of their cause. The entire history of the controversy was marked by periods of imperial intervention and violent flare-ups. Donatism may have been an expression of anti-Roman Numidian nationalism, as well as austere religious practice. The Council of Carthage in 411 was a turning point in the history of the Donatist controversy. Many Donatists returned to the Catholic Church. Some solidarity between the groups was probably forged during the later Vandal invasions of North Africa after this time. Donatism did survive in parts of the Byzantine Empire until the seventh century.

F. Augustine (354-430):

1. Life: Bishop of Hippo in the Roman Province of Namibia. His mother was Monica, a devout Christian. His father, Patricians, was a non-Christian. He was born in Thagaste, N. Africa. He was educated in the classical tradition, and a member of the gnostic Manichaean sect for nine years as a hearer. He took a concubine, had a son, Adeodatus, and later sent her away before an aborted legal marriage under Roman law. In 385 as a professor of rhetoric in Milan he was converted and baptized under Ambrose on Easter Sunday, 387. His Confessions preserve much of his internal life and information about his pilgrimage. He records having heard children in the garden saying “Take and read.” After taking the Bible nearby he was converted upon reading a passage from Romans. Visiting Hippo Regius in 391, he was made a priest. In 395 he was ordained as Bishop of Hippo.

He faced numerous controversies in his life. The Donatists outnumbered the Catholics in his see. They were purists who saw the church as a spotless Bride. They believed that impure ministers contaminated the sacraments. Augustine believed that there was of necessity, corruption in the church. The sacraments were given by Christ, not by priests and were, of themselves, effective. The two parties split on the question of present perfection vs. complete redemption at the resurrection. Unfortunately, Augustine’s advocacy of suppressing heretical beliefs by force through the arm of the State paved the way for the inquisitional policies of the Middle Ages.

The Pelagian controversy. Pelagius denied the corruption of the will and nature of man. In his view man is capable of perfection and obedience apart from grace. In essence, he denied the effect of original sin. Augustine, on the other hand, taught personal responsibility in the light of original corruption (original sin). A work of grace was necessary to enable man to obey and serve Christ. He taught election as the instrument of the work of grace.

He erroneously saw sexual union as a kind of necessary evil and the sexual act as the instrument of passing on the corrupt, fallen nature.

2. Writings

The City of God. Rome had been sacked by Alaric in 410, and Northern Africa was falling to the Visigoths at the time of Augustine’s death. In the City of God, Augustine dealt with the hard theological questions of the relations between the kingdom of God and the kingdoms of this world. He emphasized the temporal nature of the latter. Government was an instrument given to the fallen world to restrain corruption. We have dual citizenship and there is a visible and invisible church. Augustine saw Christians as bearing a responsibility to preserve order through participation in the State.

3. Just War Theory

Some guidelines for the conduct of the just war: a) Is there just cause ( a clear injury needing redress)? b) Every reasonable attempt to redress without bloodshed, c) Is the war declared by a legitimate authority?, d) How is the war fought regarding the role of civilians and non-combatants?, e) Is the damage incurred likely less than the prior injury?, f) Is success likely? Does the good outweigh the bad? (Eerdmans Handbook to the History of Christianity, p. 24). This system does not address the issues of non-resistance to evil.

G. Summary of Important Doctrinal Developments

There were many important doctrinal developments which came out of the struggles of the North African church. One of the most significant was the nature of church discipline. In North Africa, church discipline was a public confession, and notorious sinners were re-admitted after confession and a period of penance by the laying on of hands of the bishop. The keys to bind and loose given to the apostles by Christ were now placed in the hands of their successors, the bishops. It was concluded that martyrs and confessors, though close to God, did not have authority to re-admit mortal sinners into the church. Thus unity with the bishop was a prerequisite for admission to the church, thus making the church the guardian and guarantor of salvation. The sacraments though performed by fallible and even sinful men were effective in themselves because Christ had instituted them. The church was a fellowship both of those who served God, and those who were Christian in name only. This would be sorted out on the day of judgment. Christians are citizens of two kingdoms, owing loyalty to both, but are ultimately citizens of the City of God. The theory of legitimate use of state power to wage war, as well as state intervention in church disputes deeply affected the later history of the church. The biblical doctrine of original sin was established and defended emphasizing the absolute necessity of the grace of God for salvation and sanctification.

Sources:

Henry Chadwick. Augustine. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1971.

W.H.C. Frend. The Donatist Church, 1952 rpt., Oxford: The Clarendon Press, 1971.

William P. Le Saint. Treatises on Penance: On Penitience, On Purity, by Tertullian. Vol. 28 of Ancient Christian Writers.Johannes Quasten and Walter J. Burghardt, eds. New York: Newm,an Press, 1959.

Henry Paolucci. The Political Writings of St. Augustine.Southbend: Gateway Editions, 1962.

Johannes Quasten and Walter Burghardt, eds.The Letters of St. Cyprian, vol.I and II, no. 43,44 of Ancient Christian Writers. New York: Newman Press, 1984.

Cecil Melvin Robeck. The Role and Function of Prophetic Gifts for the Church at

Carthage, A.D. 202-258. Ph.D. Dissertation: Fuller Theological Semianry, 1984. Dissertation Information Services, 1987.

G.S.M. Walker. The Churchmanship of Cyprian. Richmond: John Knox Press, 1968.

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